Sport in the Martial Arts Curriculum

Historical Precedent, Modification, and Development of the Martial Arts

 
Introduction

The worst feature of the modern budo is that many of them put their primary emphasis on the sport aspect. The attitude of considering the do as sports makes it impossible for the individual exponent to acquire a sufficiently objective, intuitive grasp of do. The impulsively subjective, rational approach that characterizes sport training dominates the behavior of the individual to such a degree that far from producing the lofty aim of the modern cognate forms-peace and amity among nations-it results more and more in unfriendly feelings and nationalistic disharmony. (Draeger, 1974:180)

As the practice and instruction of the Asian martial arts evolve and become increasingly standardized, several important themes arise that continually shape and refine the opinions and understanding of contemporary practitioners. And as Draeger articulately states in the opening quote, the incorporation of sport into the practice of martial arts is a particularly sensitive and divisive issue and one that is difficult to adequately resolve. The common argument against blending the two is that the inclusion of sport trivializes and cheapens the martial arts and that the emphasis placed upon competition detracts from both loftier as well as more practical goals. Unfortunately, when addressing this issue, the debate is often interlaced with, and obscured by, myth and subjective conclusions which, upon close scrutiny, have questionable veracity and lead to an unsatisfactory understanding of both the contemporary and historical contexts in which these issues revolve.

This recurring debate nonetheless manages to define the essential elements of the martial arts while presenting the opportunity to explore revised and expanded interpretations that enhance the appreciation and enjoyment of their practice. Because of the collusion of fact, legend, and myth, a much broader, and more importantly, a much clearer understanding of the historical development of the martial arts and how it relates to a modern interpretation is required before an erudite determination of this issue is possible. Due to the extensive information available, the following topics are of particular importance to the discussion supporting the premise that the martial arts lose nothing of their effectiveness as a means to defend oneself or to gain a higher level of consciousness and insight by the addition of a sport component:

• The influences of Buddhism, particularly Zen Buddhism, upon the development of the Asian martial arts;
• An examination of the establishment of the Tokugowa bakufu (military government) upon the development of the Japanese martial arts;
• A synopsis of the role fulfilled by sport in ancient Greece which incorporated sport and athletics within the framework of its culture to an extent unequaled by any other civilization; and
• An examination of this issue using Taekwondo as a case-study to demonstrate how well the ideals of both sport and martial arts co-exist within a viable system of personal development.

As a result of this examination, it will be shown that revising the emphasis of the martial arts in reaction to historical necessity is not unprecedented and not without merit; and that with thoughtful consideration, martial arts and sport can be intertwined within a complimentary system of exercise, competition, and spiritual insight.

 
Buddhism and the Development of the Asian Martial Arts

The interrelationship of Buddhism and martial arts is especially intriguing as it offers such extensive and varietal sources of material for study. Moreover, the profound contributions of Buddhism to the cultures that have embraced it is truly enriching as the influences touch all aspects of society. In addition, a more accurate understanding of the formative Buddhist developmental influences upon the martial arts helps to clarify the importance of their practice in the present day. By examining these influences, the modern practitioner is better able to discern the dynamics of change within the martial arts and understand how limited definitions actually detract from more expansive applications. Buddhism provides the origin for several concepts that are deeply rooted in the curriculum of various martial arts.

Tomio provides a richly detailed outline of the developmental progression of chuan fa (Japanese: kempo) from India through China and eventually to Japan that mirrors the migration of Mahayana Buddhism across Asia. In describing the ksatreya, the Indian forerunners of the samurai, and their use of Nata, or forms, to aid in their spiritual development and to assist them in channeling their energies, he highlights the early relationship between martial preparation and personal growth (Tomio, 1994:161). He also comments upon yogic practices that were later used within the doctrines of Buddhism to incorporate the spiritually curative power of these yogic movements and other exercise to increase "physical vigor and not as sport or pleasure" (Tomio, 1994:177). In spreading the doctrine of the Buddha across Asia and inculcating it within native societies, Tomio asserts that "two arts especially appropriate as cultural bridges were those of healing and vajramukti (combat) for these were seen as mandalas embodying patterns of the universal totality of wisdom" (Tomio, 1994:99). Alternatively stated, the arts of healing and combat were useful tools, something of a dynamic "interactive spiritual device" (Tomio, 1994:81), to the early Buddhist missionaries and created a common reference point "between the potentially abstract spiritual teachings and the mundane and physical requirements of the times" (Tomio, 1994:277). The Vajramukti method of transmitting the Buddha's teachings is considered a means to show the more difficult and esoteric teachings of the Buddha (Tomio, 1994:184).

This transmission of Buddhist doctrine to the general population is an important feature of Buddhism in general. The Buddha sought to explain the human condition in "simple, down-to-earth explanations of often highly abstruse and metaphysical principles" (Tomio, 1994:7) and in the language of the native population. The result is that Buddhism was accepted and incorporated into the cultures of China, Korea, and Japan inspiring great accomplishments in government, art, and, of course, philosophy.

In Korea, for example, the advent of Buddhism coincides with a dramatic period of cultural expansion and vitality in the Silla dynasty that resulted in the unification of the Korean peninsula under one government. The fulfillment of the Silla cultural attributes of harmony and unity is ideally represented by the institution of the hwarang (Korea, 1960:317), a group comprised of young males from the Silla elite who "were given austere military training involving archery and horsemanship and who made pilgrimages to sacred mountains, apparently as some sort of religious ordeal." The earliest mention of the hwarang in historical records appears with the adoption of Buddhism as the state religion of the Silla dynasty in 527 CE, but the institution probably predates the first recorded historical references and possibly originated as a Maitreya cult (Henthorn, 1974: 44). An interesting supposition is that hwarangdo is possibly a precursor to Japanese bushido (Draeger, 1969:72; Sunim, 1991:28).

 
The Interrelationship between Zen Buddhism and the Japanese Martial Arts

Zen Buddhism (Chinese: Ch'an; Korean: Son) offers an especially rich influence upon the development of the martial arts due as much to the legends associated with its first patriarch, Bodhidharma, as to the extensive patronage Zen has received in the martial arts of Japan. Although the historical authenticity of the Bodhidharma legend is highly questionable (Spiessbach, 1992:10-27), Bodhidharma represents a definitive and dramatic historical beginning to Zen and a mythical beginning to the martial arts in 6th century China (Deshimaru, 1982:39,41; Dumoulin, 1994:90; Kim, 1989:7,16-17,43-44; Maliszewski, 1996:43-45; Park, 1997:11-12; Red Pine, 1987: ix-xvii; Tomio, 1994:296-304).

The interrelationship of Japanese martial arts and Zen has an extensive, documented association dating back nearly one thousand years. Zen Buddhist schools were first established in Japan during the Kamakura bakufu (Blomberg, 1994:131,194), and Zen was soon "adopted" as the Buddhist sect of choice by the buke, or warrior class. The reasons for this acceptance of Zen within the buke center around "the simplicity of the Zen approach" (King, 1993:161) that allowed the often illiterate members of the buke to concentrate only on those characteristics required to fulfill their role as soldier such as mental stability, clarity of perception, (Ratti, 1973:419) and the ability to "meet any situation with composure," called fudoshin or immobility of heart (Draeger, 1973b:27). In this way, the buke found "ways to steel themselves against the terrors of their profession and, in general, against the terror of existence" (Ratti, 1973:454). Over subsequent generations, a modified form of Zen "provided the warrior with appropriate techniques (meditation, concentration, inner centralization, extension of power, breathing, etc.) for improving his professional personality and capabilities" with the result being that the instinctive coordination of this simplified interpretation of Zen...was thus strongly qualified and limited by its very practical specialization. In general, Zen was simply used to improve upon the pragmatic, political, and utilitarian character of the bushi, rather than to help him expand his consciousness beyond the narrow confines of sword and spear. (Ratti, 1973:457)

Zen and general Buddhist elements in martial arts training continue to the present day. Dojo (Korean: dojang), or training hall, is a Chinese term first used as the name of a location within the imperial palace for Buddhist Ceremonies (Friday, 1997:54). Less obvious, but no less effective, is the use of kata which substitutes as koan, or "nonsense questions," that are used in Zen to force the student to apply all his energies to the solving of these impossible questions until the "answer" is realized in a burst of enlightenment. Kata (Korean: hyung) also requires the student to apply prodigious amounts of energy to understand the "riddle" of the poomse: become the poomse and do not simply perform the poomse so that "one acts without effort or discursive thought" (Katchmer, 1995:156-157).

Martial arts aside, the attraction for Zen continues to the present day because of its unique approach to facing everyday challenges. Dumoulin states that "basic Zen practice offers itself as a remedy for the specific ills of modern society" such as "the pressure and stress induced by the preeminence of technology and automation" and "an over-valuation of the rational for human progress" (Dumoulin, 1992:110).

 
Transformation of the Japanese Martial Arts: Classical vs. Modern?

The clearly defined challenge of combining the unique characteristics and benefits of the martial arts with the exhilaration and excitement of sport is a daunting task that requires a coherent union of Eastern and Western cultures. Again, Draeger clearly states the limitations of this potentially superficial amalgam and questions the validity of a martial art being adapted for sport. Although he addresses this issue as it pertains primarily to the Japanese martial arts, he summarizes his criticism such that it can be applied to the arts of any nation:

...in the many new systems of discipline being created today there appears to be little of lasting value. Through a dismissal of classical concepts, in which lie metaphysical truths, and the focusing of attention purely on physical effort, the universal principle of ri, or reason, give way to ji, the particular event. Ji has become all-important in the modern cognate disciplines...the tendency of exponents of modern disciplines is to dismiss that vital relationship in favor of making the modern disciplines into a flamboyant means of amusement for participants and spectators alike...Thus, what was originally spiritually essence expressed in physical exercise and having an objective character, and which can thus be considered something cultural, has been cast aside, and something purely physical, subjective, cheap, and monotonous in nature, and certainly not of a cultural nature, has been allowed to replace it. (Draeger, 1974:180)

Draeger further identifies many proponents of modern martial disciplines as not possessing sufficient "inner force and virtuous integrity to follow a more rugged but spiritually rewarding course of endeavor." (Draeger, 1974:180). He sees the requirement of forging an improved spiritual state and offering something of cultural importance as raising the standards of martial arts practice beyond simple sport. Taisen Deshimaru describes the locus on sport as "reflect[ing] a distorted vision of life" for activities that are "playthings." When training is limited to developing the body and technique, consciousness is neglected; and the true power of the martial arts is beyond the corporeal and lies in the intuitive. Although strength and technique are sufficient in a tournament, says Deshimaru, "in olden days things were very different because life was at stake, and then, ultimately, intuition decided the outcome" (Deshimaru, 1982:30,38). Few would argue that participation in sport requires a decidedly focused mental state to compete successfully at an elite level, it is not universally accepted as a means to improving and elevating a participant's spiritual state nor to making a cultural contribution.

When discussing the Japanese martial arts, there is a wealth of documented information that dates back several hundred years. Many of the Japanese martial arts have both rich histories and clearly delineated traditions. Because of the documentation available, the effect of historical events upon the Japanese martial arts is of particular value to the discussion of sport and martial arts. The change in emphasis is clearly recorded. For this discussion, the establishment of the Tokugowa Bakufu (1603-1868) and the subsequent period of extended peace provides sufficient information for considering the transition of the martial arts in Japan.

With the establishment of the Tokugowa bakufu the role of samurai as soldier effectively ended. The genius of Tokugowa Ieyasu and his predecessor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, at wielding their power enabled them to create a system of government based upon Confucian precepts that secured an enforced period of peace. The effect upon the martial arts was seen shortly thereafter. After several hundred years of almost continuous warfare, the Japanese were emphatically at peace and the practitioners of martial arts were just as suddenly without their traditional vocation: waging battles and sieges. During this time, they began expousing the idea of training for purposes other than "proficiency in combat, as their ancestors had, but as a means to physical and spiritual cultivation of the self" (Friday, 1997:15, 117).

Three expert sword masters, Tsukahara Bokuden (1490-1581), Yagyu Munenori (1571-1646), and Miyamoto Musashi (circa 1584-1645) all commented that the focus on technique alone has limited value. The focus of training should be upon higher values and morals which are much more important, but higher (spiritual) values cannot be developed if technique is the goal (Draeger, 1973b:80). Yagyu's correspondence with his Rinzai Zen master, Takuan Soho (1573-1645), further elaborated upon the role of martial training in a peaceful society. Takuan's "treatise on swordfighting stands as a lucid statement of his understanding of Zen and of Zen enlightenment as impressively illustrated in the art of swordsmanship." In applying Zen concepts to the understanding of swordsmanship, Takuan suggested not clinging to external things since "sword-fighters who direct their attention to the movements of their opponents and then get stuck there are mentally imprisoned," and "the mind should not be tied like a cat but must be able to move freely wherever it wishes" thus following all the opponents' movements continuously. Takuan also commented upon the beginner's mind by stating that "when the opponent strikes, they [beginners] respond instinctively, without thinking" but become hindered after many hours of practice with various techniques until "their minds no longer are aware of how they bear their bodies or their swords" and once again return to the beginner's mind (Dumoulin, 1990:284-288).

With regards to the purpose of training, the sword schools provide the greatest amount of documentation and make an excellent transitional example of this period. Although kenjutsu techniques existed from the Kamakura period and before, the techniques are traditionally held to have been systematized during the Muramachi period (1392-1573), a time characterized by almost constant civil war and political upheaval. In the mid-Edo period, Odagiri Sekiei, founder of the Mujishen-jen ryu, emphasized the spiritual aspect of kenjutsu training. "He said: 'The first thing required is to discard any desire to turn swordsmanship into a kind of entertainment, a matter of mere accomplishment. Further, one is not to think of achieving a victory over the opponent.'" Abe Gorodaiyu (fl. 1668), the founder of the Abe-tate ryu, went so far as to change the name of their style of kenjutsu to kendo to emphasize the goals of training more clearly. Stating that kenjutsu is limited to mastery of technique only, the Abe-tate ryu claimed that "it was necessary to transcend physical technique" in order to "gain further mastery of self, spiritual development" (Draeger, 1969:100-101; Draeger, 1973b:81).

Training methods and techniques also changed. Although martial contests between individuals or schools were not favored by the government in this new order, practitioners could still participate in brawls and duels that entailed much different strategies than those of the battlefield. An absence of armor changed the methods for combat including allowing the use of different tactics and improved maneuverability. A limit on the opportunities to utilize techniques in actual combat meant a greater reliance on kata which varied in applicability from school to school apparently being dependent upon the ability of the headmaster to remain true to combative applicability and not be swayed by decorative creative freedom (Friday, 1997:15,117).

Also influencing the interpretations of martial training during this time was the Neo-Confucian-influenced Bukyo Shogaku by Yamago Soko (1622-1685) in which the first mention of bushido, the way of warrior, is made, Hagakure (Hidden by Leaves), and Budo Shoshinshu (The Beginner's Book of Bushido) by Daidoji Yuzan Shigesuki (1639-1731) (Blomberg, 1994:105,160,179; Ratti, 1973:46). All three works were written well into the Tokugowa Bakufu for samurai that were no longer fighting battles "to die gloriously on the battlefield" (King, 1993:131), and may be somewhat nostalgic and idealistic when relating the proper way for samurai to behave and conduct them-selves. Nonetheless, they helped the government's cause in reinforcing the samurai's exhalted position in society although the samurai class merely reaped the rewards of their circumstances without contributing to society as did the farmer and merchant classes by growing food or selling goods. In fact, the government defined the manner in which the samurai should conduct their affairs and comport themselves with a series of compre-hensive laws called the Buke Sho-Hatto which were first proclaimed in 1615 and followed the precedent set by Miyamoto Yoritomo in the Kamakura period. Included in this proclamation was insistence on martial training (Blomberg, 1994:149,154). In short, the legitimization and institutionalization of bushido enabled the Tokugowa regime to sublimate the desires of the warrior class through governmental policy.

Already hinted at previously, Draeger presents a controversial distinction between classical and modern bujutsu and budo schools (Draeger, 1973a:50). But rather than simply focusing upon the suffixes, jutsu and do, he comments primarily upon the date of origins and divides the schools and styles into classical (pre-twentieth century) or modern (twentieth century). In his discussion, he stresses the differences between these two types of martial arts and claims that the modern styles tend to lose their combat effectiveness because they are farther removed from combat applications in addition to introducing competitive sport elements that emphasize winning trophies and prizes. He says that "with this watering-down process combat values weaken, often disappear, and elements unrelated to real combat creep into the exercise patterns." Attention to rank is also a modern manifestation that further dilutes the benefits of training because of the preoccupation with title and prestige. In short, Draeger is highly critical of the modern styles because of what he sees as limited and ineffectual applications (Draeger, 1969:90-94).

Maliszewski, however, disputes Draeger's opinion of the modern budo, declaring that "it would be premature to conclude that all of the contemporary budo systems that exist today represent empty shells of once-thriving, authentic spiritual disciplines." He further presses his point by stating that "select schools of modern Kendo and Kyudo do stress the importance of radical psychological authentication or transformation of the practitioner" and that "an assessment of the individual practitioner within a particular discipline remains the best measure of the degree to which these specific budo aims are stressed, exemplified, and realized" (Maliszewski, 1996:74-75).

Early manifestations of this debate can be seen in the debates between the adherents of the Chinese Neo-Confucianists Wang Yang-Ming (1472-1529) and Chu Hsi (1130-1200). The Chu Hsi school, Shushi-gaku, idealized the past and emphasized literature and etiquette (ri: mind; Chinese: li), in agreement with the Tokugowa government, whereas the Wang school, Oyomei-gaku, was completely personal and individual and stressed reliance on one's intuition and virtue rather than on one's intellect" (shin). Through the application of self-discipline in the pursuit of physical activity "a human being can learn to achieve the goal of Confucian philosophy; self-cultivation and self-perfection." Wang's version of Confucianism was criticized as being "too interested in martial strategy and tactics" and was even banned by the government. In fact, Hayashi Razan, a rabid Chu Hsi adherent, assisted Tokugowa Ieyasu on the first draft of the Buke Sho-Hatto. (Blomberg, 1994:156-158; Warner, 1982:66-69; Katchmer, 1995:153-154).

 
The Agon Model: Combat Sports in Ancient Greece

The allure of sport is a very potent, almost tangible, aspect of today's society. The celebration of men and women who run faster than their peers or who play basketball with a complete command of the game and declaration of them as heroes is hardly a trait unique to the modern age. Past civilizations, most notably the ancient Greeks, also elevated their athletes to positions of great standing or leadership. Likewise, the discussion of combining sport and martial disciplines is also a topic that is not unique to the present day. The Greek sport cultural phenomenom addresses the current issues related to martial, or combative, sports.

Because the ancient Greeks were especially conscientious about recording the details of their athletic contests, historians are able to present a vivid tapestry of Greek athletic life. Despite the honors, prestige, and adulation of literally mythic proportions (Poliakoff, 1987:122) awarded to athletic victors at the major athletic festivals of Olympia and Delphi, there was a small population within Greek society who did not consider the combative sports (wrestling, boxing, pankration) with the same enthusiasm as their contemporaries. Doctors decried the seriousness of the injuries incurred during competitive bouts (Ibid:93) and others discounted the importance of sport for military preparedness (Ibid:95, 99-103).

In fact, the criticism of the combative sporting events is most clearly demonstrated by the contrast between the Greek and Roman opinions of athletic contests. Whereas, "athletics were serious activities for the Greeks, and athletic achievement brought honor and status" (Ibid:105), the Romans viewed sport primarily as entertainment and rather than "providing an institution for competition and self-expression, the arena most clearly displayed the power and control of its organizers" (Ibid:108-109). The Greek city-state Sparta, and later Rome, both "reduced the role of sport or condemned it" recognizing "that it was an inefficient, haphazard training, and the seemingly undisciplined combat events were particularly suspect" (Ibid:103). Thus, even in the agonistic society of ancient Greece, combat sports were not universally accepted as a substitute for actual military training.

But, the athletic contest and festival was a cultural event and was clearly acknowledged for its own sake. Poliakoff, in summarizing the role of athletic contests in ancient Greece, states that the athletic agon, for all its obsessiveness (and, in the particular case of combat sport, for all its violence) far more than it served practical ends, filled a crucial need as an outlet for the highly competitive and individualistic impulses Greece developed during the period from the seventh to the fifth centuries BCE Not the least of combat sport's function was to service the potentially volatile heirs of the warrior elite. (Ibid:115)

Whereas the Romans and Spartans concerned themselves with conquest and warfare, the majority of the Grecian population enjoyed and celebrated sport and competition as an integral part of their culture. Sport provided a unique opportunity to marvel and revel at the achievements in striving for athletic excellence. The fact that the Greeks were eventually absorbed within the Roman Empire is not an indication that the combat sports were not adequate preparation for battle. Obviously, the combat sports served a different purpose entirely than military preparation against the Roman Legions since the strategies of military conquest and individual combat are two separate entities.

 
The Merging of Sport and Martial Arts

How, then, can resolution be reached in which sport can be adequately incorporated into the curriculum of a martial discipline without diminishing the inherent and unique spiritual and cultural characteristics? In Tae Kwon Do and the American Way of Life, Daeshik Kim summarizes key benefits of Taekwondo and martial arts training including self-defense, physical fitness, and the psychological improvement gained from self-discipline and self-confidence. His premise is that the "the Eastern martial arts...[offer] a microcosm of order and personal achievement, a confidence in action we can apply to a busy modern world" (Kim, 1987:76-79). He subsequently discusses issues related to revising the curriculum of a martial art to fit within this specified framework. In confronting the issue of instituting change within a martial art, Kim identifies four criteria for consideration (Kim, 1987:96):

• Is the national or cultural origin of the martial art ignored?
• How would the proposed changes affect the development of fighting skill?
• Would the proposed changes enhance or detract from artistic aspects of the martial art?
• How would the proposed changes affect spiritual development?

Kim is very clear that change must be incorporated to the curriculum in order to allow the martial art to remain relevant to its intended audience. Concurrently, change must also be tempered by a carefully considered agenda in order for the martial art in question to retain its unique significance.

If Kim's criteria are considered without application to change and using Taekwondo as an example of a modern martial art that includes a sport element, the issue of sport and martial art can be examined with keener insight and with less abstract considerations. Park attests to the first point being addressed by stating that Taekwondo "students have the responsibility to develop an understanding of Korean customs and language" in order to understand the "principles and standards of the Korean culture." Strict order and decorum in social situations, etiquette, and even learning basics of the Korean language are important within and without the dojang (Park, 1997:15-16).

As for points two and three, the available documentation on Taekwondo rank requirements and training methods suffice as evidence that a certain aestethic, or artistic, proficiency as well as development of workable fighting skills are achieved and maintained. Chung specifies key training points including "execut[ion of techniques] accurately with maximum power and speed...giv[ing] full focus and conscious attention to performance" to attain "technical improvement and overall skill integration" (Chung, 1994:51).

Kim's last point regarding spiritual development is a less obvious criterion and requires a much more detailed examination. In addition, this point can be considered as the more important issue when discussing the inclusion of sport to the martial arts curriculum based upon Draeger's previous comments. The argument can be stated that, techniques notwithstanding, restricting martial skills within a competitive format so that the "battle" becomes one of points and not of life itself removes the aspect of training that forces the practitioner to identify his true self and gain a greater understanding of life without misconceptions. Deshimaru argues that martial arts are not theater or entertainment and sports are only amusement. Training in true Budo allows one to move "beyond the level at which most people stop, one transcends the conflict, transforms it into a spiritual progress" (Deshimaru, 1982:23,38,72). A more elaborate explanation is provided by Friday:

...some bugei students are attracted from the outset by the concept of budo, while others begin training because of a perceived need for self-defense skills or a simple love of combat. Regardless of why they started, however, intimates soon realize that ultimate martial skill must take them beyond the physical into the realm of the spirit. Thus bujutsu provides the immediately perceptible goals-the motivation-needed to keep students on track toward the less tangible goals of budo ...Other ryuha use different terminology, but the essence of both the concept and the path are the same for all. (Friday, 1997:164)

The key is an emphasis upon attaining a certain state of mind, or attitude, that enables the student, through intense physical demands, to perceive life in each precious moment as if each moment is the last. Katchmer describes this result as allowing "every action" to have "great meaning and intensity" (Katchmer, 1995:144). Deshimaru states that intuition is much more important than physical strength and technique because without an awareness of the moment, the mind wanders and technique is useless. Friday clarifies this point: The traditional ryuha almost universally reject rules and modifications of technique or equipment that would allow safe practice of their arts as competitive sports. For them, maintaining combative reality and practicality is an essential component of the learning process: When this sense of realism and danger is removed, with it vanishes the unique frame of mind it produces. And without this, they believe, the bugei becomes indistinguishable from nonmartial sports and other forms of exercise. (Friday, 1997:2)

However, the traditional ryuha do not apply their methods in actual combat. The training is used to develop skills with the intent but without the cause. As with martial arts that contain a sport element like Taekwondo, the techniques are used in a limited manner. In both instances, the student is encouraged to apply his will in such a fashion so as to compensate for the limited, or even lack of, actual combat yet still develop the spiritual fortitude of one who continually confronts physical danger. Sol comments upon this observation when he summarizes Jigoro Kano's reasons for adapting the techniques of jiujutsu and creating judo. The Kodokan judo method "subject[s] the techniques...to situations which...continually scrutinize both the technique and the student, examine their effectiveness, and promote refinements of martial techniques through continuing scientific examination and practical application" (Min, 1994:116). Both circumstances place limitations upon the applicability of technique, but the traditional ryuha require patient determination to generate the required state of mind, whereas the sport element offers the opportunity to apply a state of mind as well as technique in an actual, albeit restricted, combat situation.

Yet, the sticking point remains that sport encourages a superficial occupation upon awards and self-absorption at the expense of developing intangible spiritual and character traits. In the ideal, martial arts enable a truly unique and paradoxical method for self-improvement as does sport. Likewise, sport, in its base elements, presents temptations that are physically and emotionally detrimental to the individual. But, as Sol points out, "such highly skewed preconditions are neither fair to the concept of sport, nor fair to the martial arts that deserve, and need, critical examination of martial art's role in society...the methodology of teaching and practicing martial arts then becomes extremely important to examine and understand" (Min, 1994:112). In sport as well as martial arts, there is a wide range of individuals who live up or down to the ideals of their chosen activity. Devoting attention upon these persons is of peripheral importance to the primary issue.

Does sport enhance the martial artist's education in Taekwondo? In preparation for competition, Park encourages the athlete to "fight [their] best without obsessing about the outcome" and to "focus and clear [their] mind" when the match begins (Park, 1997:147). In light of the historical examination on the martial arts, this is an obvious influx of Zen elements in modern language. If used as an analogy for life, the competition ring becomes an opportunity to confront conflict, physical danger in this instance, with composure and fortitude. As so many individuals can attest, such a moment is all-encompassing and fills one's consciousness as few other moments can.

Again, the focus on technical proficiency may seemingly detract from the more intangible benefits of Taekwondo training, but as the documented history of the martial arts attests, adaptation and establishment of relevance is not unique. And, incorporating elements of various influences is a matter of historical fact. In the case of Taekwondo, using sport and scientific methodology, such as applied exercise science, to understand, quantify, and enhance human performance is simply a means to utilize the available tools to improve the overall martial art and offer greater benefits to its practitioners. Whereas Chung states that "competition is a method of developing the full potential of the human body, both physically and technically," he also reaffirms that it "pursues the development and integration of fitness, technique and strategy as well as a sense of humility and sportsmanship" (Chung, 1994:14).

And this last point is perhaps where martial arts and sport are most complimentary. Competition provides a forum to challenge and exceed performance standards and forge the inner qualities of resolve and character. In this medium, the martial artist can blend spiritual development and sportsmanship into an active, vital source of self-improvement and enlightenment through the actual utilization of martial skills.

 
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